End Notes/Works Cited Page

¹ Boyden, Jo, and Gillian Mann. “Children’s Risk, Resilience, and Coping in Extreme Situations.” Handbook for Working with Children and Youth: Pathways to Resilience Across Cultures and Contexts. Ed. Michael Unger. London: Sage Publications, 2005. 17

² Boyden and Gillian 17

³ Hecht, Tobias. At Home in the Street: Street Children of Northeast Brazil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. 71

⁴ Hecht 72

⁵ Emler, Nicholas, and Julie Dickinson. “Children’s Understanding of Social Class and Occupational Groupings.” Children’s Understanding of Society. Eds. Martyn Barrett and Eithne Buchanan-Barrow. New York: Psychology Press 2005. 184

⁶ Morgen, Sandra, and Lisa Gonzales. “The Neoliberal American Dream as a Daydream.” Critique of Anthropology. 28 2008. 221

⁷ Boyden and Gillian 19

⁸ Boyden and Gillian 20

⁹ Stevens, Joyce W. “Lessons Learned from Poor African American Youth: Resilient Strengths in Coping with Adverse Environments.” Handbook for Working with Children and Youth: Pathways to Resilience Across Cultures and Contexts. Ed. Michael Unger. London: Sage Publications, 2005. 45

¹⁰ Roberts, Dorthy. “Criminal Justice and Black Families: The Collateral Damage of Over-Enforcement.” UC Davis Law Review 34 2001. 1012

¹¹ Pugh, Allison J. “Windfall Child Rearing: Low-Income Care and Consumption.” Journal of Consumer Culture. 4.2. 2004. 232

¹² Leventhal et. al. “Neighborhood Poverty and Public Policy: A 5-Year Follow-Up of Children’s Educational Outcomes in the New York City Moving to Opportunity Demonstration.” Developmental Psychology 41.6 2005. 936

¹³ Friesen, Barbara J., and Eileen Brennan. “Strengthening Families and Communities: System Building for Resilience.” Handbook for Working with Children and Youth: Pathways to Resilience Across Cultures and Contexts. Ed. Michael Unger. London: Sage Publications, 2005. 304

¹⁴ Boyden and Gillian 6

¹⁵ Unger, Michael, and Eli Teram. “Qualitative Resilience Research: Contributions and Risks.” Handbook for Working with Children and Youth: Pathways to Resilience Across Cultures and Contexts. Ed. Michael Unger. London: Sage Publications, 2005. 153

¹⁶ Unger and Teram 152

¹⁷ Yoshikawa, Hirokazu. “Long-Term Effects of Early Childhood Programs on Social Outcomes and Delinquency.” The Future of Children 5:3 1995. 69

Works Cited Page

Boyden, Jo, and Gillian Mann. “Children’s Risk, Resilience, and Coping in Extreme Situations.” Handbook for Working with Children and Youth: Pathways to Resilience Across Cultures and Contexts. Ed. Michael Unger. London: Sage Publications, 2005. 3-25.

Friesen, Barbara J., and Eileen Brennan. “Strengthening Families and Communities: System Building for Resilience.” Handbook for Working with Children and Youth: Pathways to Resilience Across Cultures and Contexts. Ed. Michael Unger. London: Sage Publications, 2005. 295-311.

Emler, Nicholas, and Julie Dickinson. “Children’s Understanding of Social Class and Occupational Groupings.” Children’s Understanding of Society. Eds. Martyn Barrett and Eithne Buchanan-Barrow. New York: Psychology Press 2005. 169-197.

Hecht, Tobias. At Home in the Street: Street Children of Northeast Brazil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. 70-92.

Leventhal, Tama, Rebecca C. Fauth, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn. “Neighborhood Poverty and Public Policy: A 5-Year Follow-Up of Children’s Educational Outcomes in the New York City Moving to Opportunity Demonstration.” Developmental Psychology 41.6 2005. 933-52.

Morgen, Sandra, and Lisa Gonzales. “The Neoliberal American Dream as a Daydream.” Critique of Anthropology. 28 2008. 219-236.

Pugh, Allison J. “Windfall Child Rearing: Low-Income Care and Consumption.” Journal of Consumer Culture. 4.2. 2004: 229-49.

Roberts, Dorthy. “Criminal Justice and Black Families: The Collateral Damage of Over-Enforcement.” UC Davis Law Review 34 2001. 1005-1028.

Stevens, Joyce W. “Lessons Learned from Poor African American Youth: Resilient Strengths in Coping with Adverse Environments.” Handbook for Working with Children and Youth: Pathways to Resilience Across Cultures and Contexts. Ed. Michael Unger. London: Sage Publications, 2005. 45-56.

Unger, Michael, and Eli Teram. “Qualitative Resilience Research: Contributions and Risks.” Handbook for Working with Children and Youth: Pathways to Resilience Across Cultures and Contexts. Ed. Michael Unger. London: Sage Publications, 2005. 149-63.

Yoshikawa, Hirokazu. “Long-Term Effects of Early Childhood Programs on Social Outcomes and Delinquency.” The Future of Children 5:3 1995. 51-75.

Resiliency and Public Policy

Source: http://www.walrusmagazine.com/blogs/2008/11/17/a-conversation-with-lynda-barry/

Psychological research examines conditions that reinforce resilience of children, such as through early educational programs and residential mobility programs.

Public policy disproportionately affects family structures of African-Americans, leading African-American children to be seen as "at-risk" and needing public intervention.¹⁸ Because state interventions may harm the social structure of the family, depriving children of social and emotional support, this in turn can impact resilience in African-American children in particular.

While it is important to understand how to help improve resilience of children facing adversity, it is also crucial to understand the context and conditions of society that affect how children exhibit resilience. For instance, with limited upward mobility and access to jobs and economic opportunities, some may be successful through criminal means that challenge societal norms. It is important to understand that improving social conditions of children can affect the way in which they show resilience.

Resilience could be problematic if it were misinterpreted and appropriated by policy makers to argue that is not necessary to address social issues that make it necessary for children to be resilient.¹⁹

Resilience as a Cultural Construct

The concept of resilience refers to being considered to be at-risk, overcoming adversity and hardship, and being more "successful" than what was expected.¹⁴ Developmental psychologists have been researching resilience in children facing adversity and hardship for many years to determine what factors may increase resiliency among "at-risk" youth.

In many ways, resilience is ambiguous in terms of what it means to be "at-risk" and to be "successful" in the face of adversity. Resilience can be thought of as a construct created by psychologists which has different meanings to different people. For instance, in one study about resilience, researchers defined "success" as being able to connect with and trust others, while participants themselves viewed being successful as being distant and looking out for themselves.¹⁵ So in this sense, researchers and participants have very different ideas of what successful forms of resiliency are, and researchers interpret the "success," or lack thereof, of children in overcoming adversity.¹⁶

This researcher bias is particularly evident in a study by Hirokazu in which he describes social outcomes for youths considered to be at-risk. At one point, he asserts that improving youth delinquency would result in more "productivity" of youths and that more youths would participate in the "legitimate economy”.¹⁷ This assertion ignores sociopolitical and economic factors limiting access to well-paying jobs and pathologizes social outcomes that result in youth involvement in the illegitimate economy. This is why it's very important to understand the context in which children and adolescents exist to understand how youths cope with adversity and hardship.